Platform Work

Platform work is the matching of demand and supply of paid work through an online platform using an algorithm. Three parties are involved in the matching process: the client demanding work, the platform which manages the algorithm and the person who provides the work through the platform. It is work based on the performance of individual tasks or projects rather than a continuous employment relationship. A larger task is usually divided up into smaller subtasks, or ‘micro tasks’, that are independent, homogenous and contribute to producing a specific output. These tasks are carried out separately, resulting in a widespread, even global, division of tasks (Eurofound, 2025). 

Workers around the world engage in platform work in various forms, either remotely or on location. Their work can include ride-hailing and delivery on streets, domestic work in homes, care work in communities, logistics work that connects people to services and goods, content moderation on digital platforms, and more. While platform work can offer income opportunities to vulnerable groups, it often traps marginalised workers in poor working conditions, restricts upward mobility, and perpetuates or deepens inequalities (ITUC, 2025).

the fourth edition of the Trade Union Forum on Platform Work, organised by the European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC) with the support of FES Future of Work, took place in Nicosia, Cyprus. The event was kindly hosted at the headquarters of SEK Cyprus.

FES Board Member Kampmann Highlights a Decisive Moment for Fair Platform Work

The conference brought together over 100 trade unionists and gig workers from across Europe, alongside representatives from civil society and politics, highlighting the increasing importance of fair conditions in the platform economy and the urgent need for ambitious implementation of the Platform Work Directive across all EU member states by the end of 2026.

Christina Kampmann, Member of the North Rhine-Westphalia State Parliament and FES Board Member, opened the conference on behalf of FES. She emphasised that the directive represents a decisive moment: current regulations will determine whether platform work becomes fair and sustainable, or whether existing inequalities are deepened.

Discussing Practical Solutions in a Political Panel

A key focus of the conference was how to implement the directive in a worker-friendly way, particularly regarding intermediaries and sub-contracting, which platforms increasingly rely on. Research and testimony from workers show that this model often results in poorer working conditions, illegal practices, and exploitation, particularly of migrant workers.

The conference highlighted practical solutions during a political panel discussion featuring Victor Ballester Alarcón from the Catalan Labour Inspectorate, Maximilian Schneider from the German Ministry for Labour and Social Affairs, and Leïla Chaibi from the European Parliament, moderated by Tea Jarc. Ballester Alarcón shared Spain’s approach: workers are recognised as employees of the platform, not the intermediary, and penalties have been imposed for illegal transfers of employment. He stressed that the focus should be on who controls the work through the platform, rather than who handles payroll or equipment. Schneider highlighted the complexity of implementing the Platform Work Directive, particularly regarding employment status, which remains one of the most challenging aspects to transpose into national law.

Sharing Knowledge and Strategies for Fair Platform Work in Workshop Sessions

Reports from across Europe show that governments are beginning to act, but platforms continue to exploit the system, relying on both bogus self-employment and The trade union movement is clear: only direct, accountable employment can ensure fair conditions for platform workers.

On the second day of the conference, participants engaged intensively in workshops, exchanging experiences and insights on key topics shaping the future of platform work. Workshops included Organising Migrants in Platform Work, Learning from Best Practice: Responsible AI and Algo-Management at the Workplace, Using the GDPR for Workers’ and Union Goals, Court Cases and Platform Companies, Online Workers’ Rights in the Platform Work Directive, and A Human Rights-Based Economic Vision for Platform Work and Beyond. These sessions provided a space for deep discussion, practical learning, and the development of strategies to advance fair and sustainable working conditions in the platform economy.

Around 160 trade unionists and gig workers from across Europe, along with representatives from civil society and politics, accepted the invitation of the European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC) and FES Future of Work to this year's trade union conference on platform work in Paris. The event was hosted by the French trade unions CFDT, CGT, FO, CFTC Media, and UNSA. The conference provided a space to share experiences and develop strategies for improved organization and representation of digital labor platform workers. This is particularly important as many platform workers continue to face precarious working conditions and are often subject to unfair pressures from platform operators.

Transposition of Platform Directive at the Centre of Debates

A central theme of this year's conference was the national transposition of the EU Platform Work Directive, which was adopted by the European Council in March 2024. In a high-level debate, Li Andersson, Chair of the EMPL Committee in the European Parliament, emphasized that the transposition of the platform directive into national law is an opportunity to eliminate legal uncertainties. Nicolas Schmit, Commissioner for Jobs and Social Rights, added: "We have to make sure that the spirit of the Platform Work Directive is preserved and not weakened when transposed into national legislation."

Morgan Sweeney, Dauphine Université Paris, in a keynote speech, focused on the tangible gains brought by the Platform Work Directive.

FES-EPSU Workshop on Care Platforms

Several workshops at the conference addressed specific aspects of platform work, such as algorithmic management and organization of work, gender and migration issues, and challenges in new sectors of platform work. One of these, organized by FES Future of Work together with EPSU (the European Federation of Public Service Unions), focused on care platforms and their impacts and challenges from a trade union perspective.

In recent years, the poor working conditions of workers in the platform-based ‘gig’ economy have garnered considerable media attention. Public debates often focus on offline services like food delivery and Uber driving or the "clickworkers" who complete fully digital micro-tasks on platforms. However, some platform-mediated gig services, such as care work, have received little media attention despite their growing importance.

One striking fact is that the number of caregivers on the platform Care.com alone vastly exceeds the number of Uber drivers globally. In 2018, there were 12.7 million caregiver profiles registered on Care.com, compared to 3.9 million Uber drivers worldwide. At the same time, nearly all EU countries are experiencing significant staff shortages in the care sector, making the long-term care platform economy a critical issue.

To address these challenges, FES Future of Work and EPSU presented research findings from their joint study on care platforms. Claire Marzo, from the University Paris Est and Coordinator of the CEPASSOC, also delivered a brief presentation on defining and identifying care platform work, as well as how to assess and regulate this emerging sector.

The poor working conditions of workers in the platform-based ‘gig’ economy have received considerable media attention during the last years. Yielding to the pressure from gig workers, trade unions and civil society, the European Council adopted in March 2024 a directive to improve the working conditions for platform workers.

The debate around platform-based gig work usually revolves around particular offline services, such as food delivery and Uber driving, or around the invisible crowd of “clickworkers”, which complete fully digital micro-tasks on platforms. There are, however, other platform-mediated gig services which have received little to no media attention.

One growing sector in this field is the sector of platform-mediated care. Perhaps surprisingly, the number of caregivers on the platform Care.com alone exceeds the number of Uber drivers worldwide many times over. In 2018, there were 12.7 million carer profiles registered on Care.com, as compared to 3.9 million Uber drivers worldwide. At the same time, almost all EU countries report significant staff shortages in the care sector. This makes exploring the long-term care platform economy a pressing issue.

To understand the challenges that are emerging in relation to the increased appearance and use of platforms in the care sector, the FES Future of Work and EPSU conducted a study on care platforms and impacts and challenges from a trade union perspective.

This research outlines different approaches unions can take to address employment conditions in the care sector, including specific action in relation to platform work, to ensure workers have a voice. It discusses options for unions in recruiting and organising care workers as well as strategies at the political level. The report concludes with observations and issues for further discussion.

FES and EPSU launched the study on 24 June. During an online webinar, the authors of the study, Caroline Murphy (University of Limerick) and Ivana Pais (Università Cattolica, Milano), presented the key findings. Furthermore, Ursula Huws (Analytica Social & Economic Research) and Dana-Carmen Bachmann (European Commission) commented on the results from their different perspectives. 

More than 100 trade unionists and gig workers from all over Europe as well as representants from civil society and politics accepted the invitation of the European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC) and the FES Future of Work to this year's trade union conference on platform work in Madrid.

Hosted by the Spanish trade union’s UGT and CCOO, the conference provides a space to share experiences and develop strategies for improved organisation and representation of digital labor platform workers. This is of enormous importance as many platform workers continue to suffer from precarious working conditions and are often subject to unfair pressure from platform operators.

Migrant workers in digital labour platforms at the centre of debates

This year, the discussion on the question around migrant gig workers and trade unions has been at the centre of this conference. In a keynote speech, Barbara Orth from Freie Universität Berlin presented the findings of her research on reasons for migrant workers joining platform work. For example, the fast access to a source of income flexibility of schedule and that platform jobs are often better paid than other miragntised sectors such as construction, gastronomy or warehouse work. The keynote speech served as food for thoughts for the following debate on digitalisation and precaristation with MEP Kim van Sparrentak and Matthias Weber, Director of FES FoW.

FES-EFFAT workshop on migrant issues

Furthermore, various workshops were devoted to specific aspects of platform work, such as algorithmic management and organisation of work,gender and migration issues or challenges in new sectors of platform work.

Together with EFFAT – the European Federation of Food, Agriculture and Tourism – FES Future of Work dedicated a workshop to migrant workers in digital labour platforms. Platform work has emerged as a key topic in discussions about the future of work in Europe. While there has been some focus on the working conditions and employment status of platform workers, more attention needs to be given to their demographics and backgrounds. During this workshop, Dr Inga Sabanova, policy officer at FES Future of Work presented the key findings of the FES-EPC study on how regulating platform work will impact migrant workers. Enrico and Policy Officer Dr Inga Sabanova presented the key findings. Enrico Somaglia, deputy general secretary at EFFAT, presented the main positions and demands on migration issues regarding the Platform Directive.

This Discussion Paper analyses the potential impact of the proposal for a Directive on the working conditions and rights of platform migrant workers. The Platform Directive presents a much-anticipated opportunity to guarantee that workers in the platform economy have proper access to labour rights and social benefits. However, having a more stringent regulatory framework does not necessarily translate into stronger and greater social protection for the most vulnerable individuals.

Migrant platform workers are vulnerable to double exploitation.

First, as platform workers, they cannot enjoy the protections that employment law provides.

Second, they can be subject to exploitation due to their migration and residence status, especially those who are undocumented. In this context, the positive impact of the proposed Directive will likely be limited by differences in bargaining power between migrant workers and platforms and by the well-founded fears of retaliation that some non-EU platform workers might face.

Therefore, strengthening protections will require targeted improvements to the proposed framework and further actions to remove structural barriers faced by migrant workers when accessing the labour market.

The platform economy has been expanding in France, Greece, Italy and Germany in the last decade. In the case of France and Greece new legislations have been adopted in the platform work context. In France, platform companies have to report information to tax authorities on identification details about the platform operator and users. In Greece, a new labour law has come into force in 2021, introducing a protective framework for platform workers and providing a definition for digital platforms, but there is still need for improvement.

In Italy, the Legislative Degree has been passed in 2019, improving riders’ working conditions by giving them more guarantees and move towards approximating their status to that of employees. Furthermore, several platforms of the delivery sector signed a voluntary agreement, according to which irrespectively of employment status, all workers are protected against discrimination, have full union rights and the minimum wage in the particular sector.

In Germany, despite multiple grassroots initiatives address­ing the rights of platform workers, the public debates have been focusing more on data protection at the workplace. Various parties and trade unions have been calling for an employee data-protection law in addition to the require­ments laid down in the GDPR.

However, many platform workers are still working under precarious conditions. At the European level, a new Directive on Platform Work is still in the process of negotiation and the subject of implementation into the national law in the upcoming years.

FES Future of Work and ETUC have launched a joint Social Media Campaign on the adoption of the Directive to improve the working conditions of people working through digital labour platforms.

As both ETUC and FES share the same values and objective for fair working conditions for platform workers, we would like to stress the importance of strengthening our cooperation in achieving the common goals.

We strongly emphasise the importance of the following amendments:

• Until proven otherwise every platform should be considered as an employer.
• Regardless of their flexible working arrangements, platform workers must enjoy all labour rights.
• All workers and their representatives must be able to understand how the algorithmic management works.
• The forward-looking definition of a labour platform should not give any chance for misinterpretation, and must apply to all existing and future labour platforms in all sectors.

The platform economy has been expanding in Spain, Portugal, Romania and Germany in the last decade. However, only in Spain and Portugal new legislations have been adopted by the national governments. In Spain, the ‘Rider Law’ from 2021 stipulates that delivery workers  must be considered as employees and are therefore entitled to basic rights. In Portugal, the so-called ‘Uber Law’ introduces a presumption of employment by defining an electronic platform and governing the employment status of individual platform workers. Furthermore, online platforms and platform workers are obliged to subscribe to a central register in order to provide their services.

Unlike in Spain and Portugal, online platforms are not facing such specific regulations in Germany and Romania. In the Romanian public sphere, the platform economy has been discussed as a new and positive phenomenon that fosters flexibility and autonomy compared to standard employment.
As a result, the importance of social protection, collective bargaining or working conditions of platform workers have been largely neglected.
In Germany, despite multiple grassroots initiatives addressing the rights of platform workers, the public debates have been focusing more on data protection at the workplace. Various parties and trade unions have been calling for an employee data-protection law in addition to the requirements laid down in the GDPR.

In 2022, the PhD Summer School took place between the 7^th of September and 10^th of September in Berlin, Germany. The school has explored upcoming research questions related to the platform economy and platform work.

By situating individual research projects within the broader research agenda on the platform economy and platform work, the summer school focused on a range of topics, including

• studies of algorithmic management on labour platforms;
• issues of race, gender and migration in platform work;
• varieties of platform capitalism;
• the role of platforms in reorganising traditional industries;
• ethics of digitalisation, strategic foresights.

The school was supported by five academic mentors: 

Prof. Dr. Martin Krzywdzinski is a Professor of International Labour Relations at the Helmut Schmidt University in Hamburg, director at the Weizenbaum Institute for the Networked Society and head of the research group "Globalization, Work and Production" at the WZB Berlin Social Science Center.

Dr. Florian Butollo is a Research Fellow the WZB Berlin Social Science Center and senior advisor at the Enquete Commission ‘Artificial Intelligence – Social Responsibility and Economic Potential’ of the German Parliament.

Dr. Tatiana Lopez-Ayala is a Researcher at the international Fairwork Secretariat at the WZB Berlin Social Science Center and a member of the research group “Globalization, Work and Production”.

Dr. Funda Ustek Spilda is a Post-Doctoral Researcher and project manager at Fairwork, based at the Oxford Internet Institute, University of London. She studies issues of justice, fairness and ethics in emerging technologies, from the perspectives of labour, migration and gender.

Dr. Charalambos Tsekeris is a Senior Research Fellow in Digital Sociology at the National Centre for Social Research (Athens, Greece), and Vice-President of the Hellenic National Commission for Bioethics and Techno-ethics.

Together with the Foundation for European Progressive Studies (FEPS) and in cooperation with the European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC), FES Future of Work organised the policy conference “Work Ahead: Labour in the Platform Economy” in Brussels.

The event first presented the results of the international research project “Mapping Platform Economy,” which examines the platform economy landscape across more than 30 European countries, alongside the report “Online Platforms and Platform Work.” 

The conference also provided an opportunity to discuss the EU Directive on Platform Work, highlighting its importance in setting minimum standards for working conditions, ensuring fair treatment, and strengthening collective rights for platform workers across Europe. This discussion was combined with a broader exchange on the legislative process aimed at improving conditions for workers on digital labour platforms and addressing the employment implications of the AI Act.

Finally, the event offered a forward-looking perspective: the platform economy is driving changes that increasingly affect all workers, from wage stagnation and fragmented labour to the growing use of digital surveillance tools. The discussion explored which elements could form a progressive agenda to tackle these challenges, including the specific impact on women and migrant workers, who are often disproportionately represented in platform work and face additional vulnerabilities.

Platform economy began to emerge in Nordic countries – as in Germany and the rest of Europe - in the mid-2000s due to rapidly developing technological innovations and emergency of new business models. International online platforms such as Foodora, Hilf or Wolt have their headquarters or were founded in Nordic countries, whereas in Germany – Gorillas and Delivery Heroes were founded.

Even if the size of platform economy in Nordic countries and Germany is increasing, there is not much known about online platforms and platform work e.g., number of online platforms or socio-demographic characteristics of platforms workers. In both cases, the lack of regulations has drastic consequences for platform workers, who work often under precarious conditions.

In Finland, platforms are not discussed as a separate sphere needing special regulations. In Sweden, the most common issues in the debate are working conditions, employment security, decent pay, excessive control and surveillance, and collective agreements for platform companies. Unlike in other countries, in Denmark, in 2021, a collective agreement was reached with the food delivery platforms Just Eat, COOP FOOD and FØTEX together with a public campaign on fair transport, fair prices and fair working conditions.

In the case of Norway, there is currently no consensus on whether online platform companies are to be considered employers in Norway. According to Norwegian labour law, employment status is to be determined on a case-by-case basis. Platform companies vary in terms of the extent to which workers are dependent on, and subordinated to, the companies, the core criteria for determining employment status in Norwegian labour law.

In Germany, even if platform work has not received much attention in the public debate, many issues relating to digital transformation have been discussed under the caption of Industry 4.0 by industry representatives and state actors. The importance of data protection at the workplace has had a particularly prominent place in the public debate. Various parties and trade unions have been calling for an employee data-protection law in addition to the requirements laid down in the GDPR.

The factsheets look at (1) regulatory aspects, (2) recent legal developments, (3) characteristics of platform workers, (4) characteristics of popular platform companies, (5) the general perception of platform work and (6) collective actions and court cases.

Our analysis shows that while there are major differences across European countries, in terms of regulatory aspects, it is still uncertain how many active platforms are in a country, how many people are working on them and with what employment status they work. This type of information is particularly important in addressing the legal responsibility of platform companies, not only in terms of the quality of services provided, but also with a view toward fair working conditions for workers employed by these platforms.